dogbasics

Ancient
The earliest fossil carnivores that can be linked with some certainty to canids are the Eocene
Miacids some 56 to 38 million years ago. From the miacids, evolved the cat-like (Feloidea)
and dog-like (Canoidea) carnivores. Most important to the ancestry of the dog was the canoid
line, leading from the coyote-sized Mesocyon of the Oligocene (38 to 24 million years ago) to
the fox-like Leptocyon and the wolf-like Tomarctusthat wandered around North America some
10 million years ago. From the time of Tomarctus, dog-like carnivores have expanded
throughout the world.[1]

[]Domestication
Human hunter-gatherers and wolves experienced several overlaps as both are social
species, they shared habitat and hunted the same prey. There are several theories to explain
possible routes for domestication of the dog:

1.Orphaned wolf-cubs: Studies have shown that some wolf pups taken at an early age and
reared by humans are easily tamed and socialized.[2] Once these early adoptees started
breeding amongst themselves, a new generation of tame "wolf-like" domestic animals would
result which would over generations of time, become more dog-like.
2.The Promise of Food/Self Domestication: Early wolves would, as scavengers, be attracted
to the bones and refuse dumps of human campsites. Dr. Raymond Coppinger of Hampshire
College,Massachusetts, argues that those wolves that were more successful at interacting
with humans would pass these traits onto their offspring, eventually creating wolves with a
greater propensity to be domesticated. Coppinger believes that a behavioral characteristic
called "flight distance" was crucial to the transformation from wild wolf to the ancestors of the
modern dog. It represents how close an animal will allow humans (or anything else it
perceives as dangerous) to get before it runs away. Animals with shorter flight distances will
linger, and feed, when humans are close by; this behavioral trait would have been passed on
to successive generations, and amplified, creating animals that are increasingly more
comfortable around humans. "My argument is that what domesticated—or tame—means is to
be able to eat in the presence of human beings. That is the thing that wild wolves can't do."[3]
Furthermore, selection for domesticity had the side effect of selecting genetically related
physical characteristics, and behavior such as barking. Hypothetically, wolves separated into
two populations – the village-oriented scavengers and the packs of hunters. The next steps
have not been defined, but selective pressure must have been present to sustain the
divergence of these populations.
3.As a beast of burden: North American Indians used dog-sized travois before adapting the
horse for this purpose, and huskies are famous for pulling sleds for Inuit communities. It is
very probable that the dog was the original beast of burden before the domestication of the
horse or ox.
4.Dogs as a source of food and fur: While Westerners have difficulty thinking of dogs (or
wolves) as a source of meat, wolf fur is a highly prized commodity.
Archaeology has placed the earliest known domestication at potentially 30,000 BC [4][5] in
Belgium, and with certainty at 7,000 BC [2]. Domestication of the wolf over time has produced
a number of physical changes typical of all domesticated mammals. These include: a
reduction in overall size; changes in coat colouration and markings; a shorter jaw initially with
crowding of the teeth and, later, with the shrinking in size of the teeth; a reduction in brain
size and intelligence and thus in cranial capacity (particularly those areas relating to alertness
and sensory processing, necessary in the wild); and the development of a pronounced “stop”,
or vertical drop in front of the forehead (brachycephaly). Behaviourally, the wagging of tails
and barking are behaviours only found in wolf puppies, retained via neoteny throughout the
dog's life. Certain wolf-like behaviours, such as the regurgitation of partially digested food for
the young, have also disappeared.

As an experiment in the domestication of wolves, the "farm fox" experiment of Russian
scientist Dmitry Belyaev [6] attempted to reenact of how domestication may have occurred.
Researchers working with selectively breeding wild silver foxes over thirty-five generations
and forty years for the sole trait of friendliness to humans, created more dog-like animals.
The "domestic elite" foxes are much more friendly to humans and actually seek human
attention, but they also show new physical traits that parallel the selection for tameness, even
though the physical traits were not originally selected for. They include spotted or black-and-
white coats, floppy ears, tails that curl over their backs, and earlier sexual maturity. It was
reported "On average, the domestic foxes respond to sounds two days earlier and open their
eyes one day earlier than their non-domesticated cousins. More striking is that their
socialisation period has greatly increased. Instead of developing a fear response at 6 weeks
of age, the domesticated foxes don't show it until 9 weeks of age or later. The whimpering and
tail wagging is a holdover from puppy hood, as are the foreshortened face and muzzle. Even
the new coat colours can be explained by the altered timing of development. One researcher
found that the migration of certain melanocytes (which determine colour) was delayed,
resulting in a black and white 'star' pattern."

[edit]DNA Evidence

Specialization – Breeds such as the Newfoundland and the Labrador were bred from large
black mixed-breed dogs, such as this one from Atlantic Canada.Prior to the use of DNA
researchers were divided into two schools of thought:

1.Most supposed that these early dogs were descendants of tamed wolves, which interbred
and evolved into a domesticated species.
2.Other scientists, while believing wolves were the chief contributor, suspected that jackals or
coyotes contributed to the dog's ancestry.
Carles Vilà,[7] who has conducted the most extensive study to date, has shown that DNA
evidence has ruled out any ancestor canine species except the wolf. Vila's team analyzed 162
different examples of wolf DNA from 27 populations in Europe, Asia, and North America.
These results were compared with DNA from 140 individual dogs from 67 breeds gathered
from around the world. Using blood or hair samples, DNA was extracted and genetic distance
for mitochondrial DNA was estimated between individuals.

Based on this DNA evidence, most of the domesticated dogs were found to be members of
one of four groups. The largest and most diverse group contains sequences found in the
most ancient dog breeds, including the dingo of Australia, the New Guinea Singing Dog, and
many modern breeds, like the collie and retriever. Other groups such as the German
shepherd showed a closer relation to wolf sequences than to those of the main dog group,
suggesting that such breeds had been produced by crossing dogs with wild wolves. It is also
possible that this is evidence that dogs may have been domesticated from wolves on different
occasions and at different places. Vilà is still uncertain whether domestication happened once
– after which domesticated dogs bred with wolves from time to time – or whether it happened
more than once.

A later study by Peter Savolainen et al. identified DNA evidence suggesting a common origin
from a single East Asian gene pool for all dog populations.[8]

The most puzzling fact of the DNA evidence is that the variability in molecular distance
between dogs and wolves seems greater than the 10,000–20,000 years assigned to
domestication. Yet the process and economics of domestication by humans only emerged
later in this period in any case. Based upon the molecular clock studies conducted, it would
seem that dogs separated from the wolf lineage approximately 100,000 years ago. Although
clear evidence for fossil dogs becomes obscure beyond about 14,000 years ago, there are
fossils of wolf bones in association with early humans from well beyond 100,000 years ago.[9]
Tamed wolves might have taken up with hunter-gatherers without changing in ways that the
fossil record could clearly capture. These dogs-in-process would possibly have dallied with
wolves as packs of humans and canines traveled out of Africa and around the world. Since
evidence of dogs is not found elsewhere before 14,000 years ago, it may be that the "Sahara
pump" associated with the Glacial Maximum was responsible for the spread of the dogs out of
Africa. Such a thesis is compatible with the spread of languages associated with the Nostratic
hypothesis.

The influx of new genes from those crossings could very well explain the extraordinarily high
number of dog breeds that exist today, the researchers suggest. Dogs have much greater
genetic variability than other domesticated animals, such as cats, asserts Vilà. Once
agriculture took hold, dogs would have been selected for different tasks, their wolf-like
natures becoming a handicap as they became herders and guards. Molecular biologist Elaine
Ostrander is of the view that "When we became an agricultural society, what we needed dogs
for changed enormously, and a further and irrevocable division occurred at that point."[10]
This may be the point that stands out in the fossil record, when dogs and wolves began to
develop noticeably different morphologies.

Specialization
As humans migrated around the planet a variety of dog forms migrated with them. The
agricultural revolution and subsequent urban revolution led to an increase in the dog
population and a demand for specialization. These circumstances would provide the
opportunity for selective breeding to create specialized types of working dogs and petNeoteny
in the rapid evolution of diverse dog breeds
The Bulldog is well known for its short muzzle and saggy skin on its face.This rapid evolution
of dogs from wolves is an example of neoteny or paedomorphism. As with many species, the
young wolves are more social and less dominant than adults; therefore, the selection for
these characteristics, whether deliberate or inadvertent, is more likely to result in a simple
retention of juvenile characteristics into adulthood than to generate a complex of independent
new changes in behavior. (This is true of many domesticated animals, including humans
themselves, who have many characteristics similar to young bonobos.) This paedomorphic
selection naturally results in a retention of juvenile physical characteristics as well. Compared
to wolves, many adult dog breeds retain such juvenile characteristics as soft fuzzy fur, round
torsos, large heads and eyes, ears that hang down rather than stand erect, etc.;
characteristics which are shared by most juvenile mammals, and therefore generally elicit
some degree of protective and nurturing behavior cross-species from most adult mammals,
including humans, who term such characteristics "cute" or "appealing".

The example of canine neoteny goes even further, in that the various breeds are differently
neotenized according to the type of behavior that was selected.[11]

Livestock guardian dogs exhibit the controlled characteristics of hunting dogs. Members of
this group, such as Border Collies, Belgian Malinois and German Shepherds use tactics of
hunter and prey to intimidate and keep control of herds and flocks. Their natural instinct to
bring down an animal under their charge is muted by training. Other members of the group,
including Welsh Corgis, Canaan dogs, and Cattle dogs herd with a more aggressive
demeanor(such as biting and nipping at the heels of the animals) and make use of body
design to elude the defences of their charges.
Gun dog breeds used in hunting—that is, pointers, setters, spaniels, and retrievers—have an
intermediate degree of paedomorphism; they are at the point where they share in the pack's
hunting behavior, but are still in a junior role, not participating in the actual attack. They
identify potential prey and freeze into immobility, for instance, but refrain from then stalking
the prey as an adult predator would do next; this results in the "pointing" behavior for which
such dogs are bred. Similarly, they seize dead or wounded prey and bring it back to the
"pack", even though they did not attack it themselves, that is, "retrieving" behavior. Their
physical characteristics are closer to that of the mature wild canine than the sheepdog
breeds, but they typically do not have erect ears, etc.

Intentionally cross-bred dogs, such as this poodle hybrid, have become so popular in
contemporary times so as to be labeled "designer dogs".Scenthounds maintain an
intermediate body type and behavior pattern that causes them to actually pursue prey by
tracking their scent, but tend to refrain from actual individual attacks in favor of vocally
summoning the pack leaders (in this case, humans) to do the job. They often have a
characteristic vocalization called a bay. Some examples are the Beagle, Bloodhound, Basset
Hound, Coonhound, Dachshund, Fox Hound, Otter Hound, and Harrier.
Sighthounds, who pursue and attack perceived prey on sight, maintain the mature canine size
and some features, such as narrow chest and lean bodies, but have largely lost the erect
ears of the wolf and thick double layered coats. Some examples are the Afghan Hound,
Borzoi, Saluki, Sloughi, Pharaoh Hound, Azawakh, Whippet, and Greyhound.
Mastiff-types are large dogs, both tall and massive with barrel-like chests, large bones, and
thick skulls. They have traditionally been bred for war, protection, and guardian work.
Bulldog-types are medium sized dogs bred for combat against both wild and domesticated
animals. These dogs have a massive, square skull and large bones with an extremely
muscular build and broad shoulders.
Terriers similarly have adult aggressive behavior, famously coupled with a lack of juvenile
submission, and display correspondingly adult physical features such as erect ears, although
many breeds have also been selected for size and sometimes dwarfed legs to enable them to
pursue prey in their burrows.
The least paedomorphic behavior pattern may be that of the basenji, bred in Africa to hunt
alongside humans almost on a peer basis; this breed is often described as highly
independent, neither needing nor appreciating a great deal of human attention or nurturing,
often described as "catlike" in its behavior. It too has the body plan of an adult canine
predator. Of course, dogs in general possess a significant ability to modify their behavior
according to experience, including adapting to the behavior of their "pack leaders"—again,
humans. This allows them to be trained to behave in a way that is not specifically the most
natural to their breed; nevertheless, the accumulated experience of thousands of years
shows that some combinations of nature and nurture are quite daunting, for instance, training
whippets to guard flocks of sheep.

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Puppy Basics
Birth and early development
The number of puppies in a litter varies greatly by breed. Some smaller dogs bear only one
or two puppies at a time, while some larger breeds bear ten or more. In some cases, one
puppy will be the runt of the litter, being noticeably smaller than the other puppies. The runt is
generally quite meek or very aggressive because of its size compared to its sibling. Puppies
are born after approximately 63 days of gestation, puppies emerge in an amnion which is
bitten off and eaten by the mother dog.

Puppies begin to nurse almost immediately. If the litter exceeds six puppies, particularly if one
or more are obvious runts, human intervention in hand-feeding the stronger puppies will be
necessary to ensure that the runts get proper nourishment and attention from the mother to
thrive. As they reach one month of age, the puppies are gradually weaned and begin to eat
solid food. The mother may regurgitate partially digested food for the puppies to eat or might
let them eat some of her solid food. By the age of about seven weeks, puppies no longer
depend on nursing for food. Although they may continue trying to nurse, the mother dog may
no longer allow them to after this age; still, she might let them occasionally nurse for comfort.

At first, puppies spend ninety percent of their time sleeping and the rest feeding. During their
first two weeks, although it is not completely visible, a puppy's senses all develop rapidly.
Puppies open their eyes about nine to eleven days following birth. At first, the retina is poorly
developed and their vision is poor. Puppies are not able to see as well as adult dogs. In
addition, puppies ears remain sealed until about thirteen to seventeen days after birth, after
which they respond more actively to sounds. From two to four weeks, puppies usually begin
to growl, bite, wag their tails, and bark.

Puppies develop very quickly during their first three months, particularly after their eyes and
ears open and they are no longer completely dependent on their mother. Their coordination
and strength improve, they spar with their litter-mates, and begin to explore the world outside
the nest. They play wrestling, chase, dominance, and tug-of-war games.

Puppies are highly social animals and spend most of their waking hours interacting with either
their mother or litter mates. Most experts now believe that being with its mother and litter
mates until at least eight weeks is important for a puppy's behavioral development.
Responsible breeders will not sell a puppy that is younger than eight to twelve weeks, and in
many jurisdictions, it is illegal to give away puppies younger than a certain age (usually
between eight and twelve weeks It is important that the puppy receive regular positive
socialisation with other dogs and humans during the first sensitive period (eight to twelve
weeks). Puppies should be exposed to as wide a variety of friendly people and dogs as
possible during this period. Dogs that do not receive adequate socialization during the first
sensitive period may display fearful behaviour around humans or dogs as adults. Males tend
to be more hyperactive when they are young.

[edit]Training
Training of basic obedience can begin at the same time, although recommendations for how
intense and how soon vary. Training for young puppies is generally recommended to be light,
gentle, and fun; more like a game than an exercise. Most formal puppy classes accept
puppies starting at three months of age, although some provide socialization classes for
younger pups. Local dog trainers may also offer some in-home training for younger puppies.

Housebreaking can begin by the time the puppy is two to three months old, although they
usually do not have enough control of their bladder to be completely housebroken until they
are six months to a year old. Some find that using training pads is an effective method of
housebreaking. Others prefer to use a crate training method.

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Dog Basics...........A little history and science of the dog.